Relative Pronouns
relative pronoun
|
use
|
example
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who
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subject or object pronoun for people
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I told you about the woman who lives next door.
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which
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subject or object pronoun for animals and things
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Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?
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which
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referring to a whole sentence
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He couldn’t read which surprised me.
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whose
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possession for people animals and things
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Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?
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whom
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object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who)
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I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference.
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that
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subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)
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I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen.
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Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun?
Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms - who, which, that are used for subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as follows:
If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun. Subject pronouns must always be used.
the apple which is lying on the table
If the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb (but by a noun or pronoun), the relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then called Contact Clauses.
the apple (which) George lay on the table
Relative Adverbs
A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand.
This is the shop in which I bought my bike.
→ This is the shop where I bought my bike.
relative adverb
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meaning
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use
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example
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when
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in/on which
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refers to a time expression
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the day when we met him
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where
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in/at which
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refers to a place
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the place where we met him
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why
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for which
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refers to a reason
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the reason why we met him
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Defining Relative Clauses
Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas.
Imagine, Tom is in a room with five girls. One girl is talking to Tom and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause defines which of the five girls you mean.
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?
Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions.
A seaman is someone who works on a ship.
Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. (Sentences with a relative clause without the relative pronoun are called Contact Clauses.)
The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.
Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive relative clauses) give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas.
Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause is non-defining because in this situation it is obvious which girl you mean.
Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom?
Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.
Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.
Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.
How to Shorten Relative Clauses?
Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a participle. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.
I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman living next door.
Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof?
Relative clauses
What is a relative clause?
We can use relative clauses to join two English sentences, or to give more information about something.
I bought a new car. It is very fast.
→ I bought a new car that is very fast.
She lives in New York. She likes living in New York.
→ She lives in New York, which she likes.
Defining and Non-defining
A defining relative clause tells which noun we are talking about:
- I like the woman who lives next door.
(If I don't say 'who lives next door', then we don't know which woman I mean).
A non-defining relative clause gives us extra information about something. We don't need this information to understand the sentence.
- I live in London, which has some fantastic parks.
(Everybody knows where London is, so 'which has some fantastic parks' is extra information).
Defining relative clauses:
1: The relative pronoun is the subject:
First, let's consider when the relative pronoun is the subject of a defining relative clause.
We can use 'who', 'which' or 'that'. We use 'who' for people and 'which' for things. We can use 'that' for people or things.
The relative clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. We can't drop the relative pronoun.
For example (clause after the object of the sentence):
- I'm looking for a secretary who / that can use a computer well.
- She has a son who / that is a doctor.
- We bought a house which / that is 200 years old.
- I sent a letter which / that arrived three weeks later.
More examples (clause after the subject of the sentence):
- The people who / that live on the island are very friendly.
- The man who / that phoned is my brother.
- The camera which / that costs £100 is over there.
- The house which / that belongs to Julie is in London.
2: The relative pronoun is the object:
Next, let's talk about when the relative pronoun is the object of the clause. In this case we can drop the relative pronoun if we want to. Again, the clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. Here are some examples:
(Clause after the object)
- She loves the chocolate (which / that) I bought.
- We went to the village (which / that) Lucy recommended.
- John met a woman (who / that) I had been to school with.
- The police arrested a man (who / that) Jill worked with.
(Clause after the subject)
- The bike (which / that) I loved was stolen.
- The university (which / that) she likes is famous.
- The woman (who / that) my brother loves is from Mexico.
- The doctor (who / that) my grandmother liked lives in New York.
Non-defining relative clauses:
We don't use 'that' in non-defining relative clauses, so we need to use 'which' if the pronoun refers to a thing, and 'who' if it refers to a person. We can't drop the relative pronoun in this kind of clause, even if the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause.
(Clause comes after the subject)
- My boss, who is very nice, lives in Manchester.
- My sister, who I live with, knows a lot about cars.
- My bicycle, which I've had for more than ten years, is falling apart.
- My mother's house, which I grew up in, is very small.
(Clause comes after the object)
- Yesterday I called our friend Julie, who lives in New York.
- The photographer called to the Queen, who looked annoyed.
- Last week I bought a new computer, which I don't like now.
- I really love the new Chinese restaurant, which we went to last night.
Prepositions and relative clauses
If the verb in the relative clause needs a preposition, we put it at the end of the clause:
For example:
The music is good. Julie listens to the music.
→ The music (which / that) Julie listens to is good.
My brother met a woman. I used to work with the woman.
→ My brother met a woman (who / that) I used to work with.
The country is very hot. He went to the country.
→ The country (which / that) he went to is very hot.
I visited the city. John comes from the city.
→ I visited the city (that / which) John comes from.
The job is well paid. She applied for the job.
→ The job (which / that) she applied for is well paid.
Whose
'Whose' is always the subject of the relative clause and can't be left out. It replaces a possessive. It can be used for people and things.
The dog is over there. The dog's / its owner lives next door.
→ The dog whose owner lives next door is over there.
The little girl is sad. The little girl's / her doll was lost.
→ The little girl whose doll was lost is sad.
The woman is coming tonight. Her car is a BMW.
→ The woman whose car is a BMW is coming tonight.
The house belongs to me. Its roof is very old.
→ The house whose roof is old belongs to me.
Where / when / why
We can sometimes use these question words instead of relative pronouns and prepositions.
I live in a city. I study in the city.
→ I live in the city where I study.
→ I live in the city that / which I study in.
→ I live in the city in which I study.
The bar in Barcelona is still there. I met my wife in that bar.
→ The bar in Barcelona where I met my wife is still there.
→ The bar in Barcelona that / which I met my wife in is still there.
→ The bar in Barcelona in which I met my wife is still there.
The summer was long and hot. I graduated from university in the summer.
→ The summer when I graduated from university was long and hot.
→ The summer that / which I graduated from university in was long and hot.
→ The summer in which I graduated was long and hot.
CONDITIONAL
Conditional tenses are used to speculate about what could happen, what might have happened, and what we wish would happen. In English, most sentences using the conditional contain the word if. Many conditional forms in English are used in sentences that include verbs in one of the past tenses. This usage is referred to as "the unreal past" because we use a past tense but we are not actually referring to something that happened in the past. There are five main ways of constructing conditional sentences in English. In all cases, these sentences are made up of an if clause and a main clause. In many negative conditional sentences, there is an equivalent sentence construction using "unless" instead of "if".
Conditional sentence type
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Usage
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If clause verb tense
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Main clause verb tense
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Zero
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General truths
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Simple present
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Simple present
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Type 1
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A possible condition and its probable result
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Simple present
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Simple future
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Type 2
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A hypothetical condition and its probable result
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Simple past
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Present conditional or Present continuous conditional
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Type 3
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An unreal past condition and its probable result in the past
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Past perfect
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Perfect conditional
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Mixed type
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An unreal past condition and its probable result in the present
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Past perfect
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Present contditional
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THE ZERO CONDITIONAL
The zero conditional is used for when the time being referred to is now or always and the situation is real and possible. The zero conditional is often used to refer to general truths. The tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present. In zero conditional sentences, the word "if" can usually be replaced by the word "when" without changing the meaning.
If clause
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Main clause
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If + simple present
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simple present
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If this thing happens
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that thing happens.
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If you heat ice
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it melts.
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If it rains
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the grass gets wet.
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TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL
The type 1 conditional is used to refer to the present or future where the situation is real. The type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. In these sentences the if clause is in the simple present, and the main clause is in the simple future.
If clause
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Main clause
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If + simple present
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simple future
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If this thing happens
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that thing will happen.
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If you don't hurry
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you will miss the train.
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If it rains today
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you will get wet.
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TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL
The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a time that is now or any time, and a situation that is unreal. These sentences are not based on fact. The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a hypothetical condition and its probable result. In type 2 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the simple past, and the main clause uses the present conditional.
If clause
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Main clause
|
If + simple past
|
present conditional or present continuous conditional
|
If this thing happened
|
that thing would happen. (but I'm not sure this thing will happen) OR
that thing would be happening.
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If you went to bed earlier
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you would not be so tired.
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If it rained
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you would get wet.
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If I spoke Italian
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I would be working in Italy.
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TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL
The type 3 conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is contrary to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The type 3 conditional is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable past result. In type 3 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the perfect conditional.
If clause
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Main clause
|
If + past perfect
|
perfect conditional or perfect continuous conditional
|
If this thing had happened
|
that thing would have happened. (but neither of those things really
happened) OR
that thing would have been happening.
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If you had studied harder
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you would have passed the exam.
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If it had rained
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you would have gotten wet.
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If I had accepted that promotion
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I would have been working in Milan.
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MIXED TYPE CONDITIONAL
The mixed type conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation that is ongoing into the present. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is expressed. The mixed type conditional is used to refer to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present. In mixed type conditional sentences, the if clause uses the past perfect, and the main clause uses the present conditional.
If clause
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Main clause
|
If + past perfect or simple past
|
present conditional or perfect conditional
|
If this thing had happened
|
that thing would happen. (but this thing didn't happen so that thing isn't
happening)
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If I had worked harder at school
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I would have a better job now.
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If we had looked at the map
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we wouldn't be lost.
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If you weren't afraid of spiders
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you would have picked it up and put it outside.
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